Posted: May 15th, 2023

The Ministry of Health is faced with the problem of low uptake of covid-

1. The Ministry of Health is faced with the problem of low uptake of covid-19 vaccines. Suppose you are hired to offer research consultancy on this phenomenon, which is translated into a research problem: “Analyzing the determinants of the uptake of COVID 19 vaccines: a case study of Lusaka- Zambia”, and using the Health Belief Model which explains the failure of people to adopt disease prevention strategies or screening tests for early detection of disease.
The Health Belief Model derives from psychological and behavioral theory, and it offers six constructs to explain the phenomenon:
 Perceived susceptibility: Person’s subjective perception of the risk of acquiring an illness or disease.
 Perceived severity: Person’s feelings on the seriousness of contracting an illness or disease.
 Perceived benefits: person’s perception of the effectiveness of various actions available to reduce the threat of illness or disease.
 Perceived barriers: person’s feelings on obstacles to performing a recommended health action.
 Cue action: Stimulus needed to trigger the decision making process to accept the recommended health action.
 Self-efficacy: The level of a person’s confidence in their ability to successfully perform the desired and/or recommended behavior.
Part I: Questions:
i. State any two research objectives for the phenomenon highlighted above ii. State any two research questions based on the objectives mentioned above iii. State any hypothesis for this study
iv. Develop a conceptual framework based on the variables highlighted above to demonstrate the relationship between the dependent variable [uptake of COVID-19 vaccines] and the independent [Predictor] variables listed above.

2. Research Philosophy: Whether you are consciously aware of them or not, at every stage in your research you will make a number of ontological, epistemological and axiological assumptions (Burrell and Morgan, 1979). Briefly show the application of research philosophy in natural and social sciences by clearly stating the ontological, epistemological and axiological assumptions under each science.
Assumption Types Positivism: Objectivism [Natural Science] Interpretivism: Subjectivism [Social Science]
Ontology

What is the nature of reality?

Ontological philosophical position?

What is the world like?
Epistemology

What is considered acceptable legitimate knowledge?

What constitutes good quality data?

What kinds of contribution to knowledge can be made?
Axiology

What is the role of values in research?
Typical Methods

3. Research Designs:
Identify and briefly explain the appropriate sampling design for each of the following social research phenomena and show their implementation respectively. Provide practical explanations and make valid assumptions in order to support your answer.

A. Qualitative research:
i. To study community traditional child birth practices causing infant mortality
ii. To study the cholera situation in a given well defined location
iii. To study cultural practices or a way of life of an ethnic group
iv. To study a new phenomenon emerging in a population
v. To build a theory explaining the suicide phenomenon

B. Quantitative research-Experiments and Surveys:
i. To study a proposed vaccine for COVID19 in clinical research ii. To study the association of smoking and lung cancer using a chi-squared test iii. To study the effectiveness of a Malaria drug in a given community
iv. To study the effects of population growth on agricultural productivity within a rural agro-based population
v. To study the prevalence of STIs in a population

4. Sampling designs:

Identify and briefly explain the appropriate sampling design for each of the following social research phenomena and show their implementation respectively. Provide practical explanations and make valid assumptions in order to support your answer.

i. To randomly study the prevalence of malaria in households in a given territory ii. To study the hunger situation in a systematic pattern within a given territory iii. To study poverty in a heterogeneous high, medium and low density population iv. To study farming practices implemented in different villages in a given region
v. To study farming practices used in villages by randomly selecting respondents

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Part I: Questions

i. State any two research objectives for the phenomenon highlighted above.

To identify the factors influencing the perceived susceptibility, severity, benefits, barriers, cue action, and self-efficacy related to the uptake of COVID-19 vaccines among the population of Lusaka, Zambia.
To examine the relationship between the determinants of the Health Belief Model (perceived susceptibility, severity, benefits, barriers, cue action, and self-efficacy) and the uptake of COVID-19 vaccines in Lusaka, Zambia.
ii. State any two research questions based on the objectives mentioned above.

What are the perceived susceptibility, severity, benefits, barriers, cue action, and self-efficacy factors influencing the uptake of COVID-19 vaccines among the population of Lusaka, Zambia?
How do the determinants of the Health Belief Model relate to the actual uptake of COVID-19 vaccines in Lusaka, Zambia?
iii. State any hypothesis for this study.

Null hypothesis: There is no significant relationship between the determinants of the Health Belief Model (perceived susceptibility, severity, benefits, barriers, cue action, and self-efficacy) and the uptake of COVID-19 vaccines in Lusaka, Zambia.
Alternative hypothesis: There is a significant relationship between the determinants of the Health Belief Model (perceived susceptibility, severity, benefits, barriers, cue action, and self-efficacy) and the uptake of COVID-19 vaccines in Lusaka, Zambia.
iv. Develop a conceptual framework based on the variables highlighted above to demonstrate the relationship between the dependent variable [uptake of COVID-19 vaccines] and the independent [Predictor] variables listed above.

Please note that I am unable to provide a visual representation as a text-based response. However, I can describe the conceptual framework:

The conceptual framework would depict the relationship between the dependent variable (uptake of COVID-19 vaccines) and the independent variables (perceived susceptibility, severity, benefits, barriers, cue action, and self-efficacy) based on the Health Belief Model. The arrows in the framework would indicate the direction of influence. For example, perceived susceptibility, severity, benefits, barriers, cue action, and self-efficacy would all have arrows pointing towards the uptake of COVID-19 vaccines, indicating their potential impact on vaccine uptake.

Part II: Research Philosophy

Assumption Types:
Positivism: Objectivism [Natural Science]

Ontology: The nature of reality is objective, external, and independent of human perception.
Epistemology: Acceptable legitimate knowledge is obtained through empirical observation, measurement, and experimentation. Good quality data is quantifiable, objective, and free from bias.
Axiology: Values play a minimal role in research, as objectivity and neutrality are prioritized.
Typical Methods: Experimental designs, quantitative data collection, statistical analysis.
Interpretivism: Subjectivism [Social Science]

Ontology: Reality is socially constructed and subjective, influenced by human interpretation and meaning-making.
Epistemology: Acceptable legitimate knowledge is derived through subjective experiences, interpretations, and understanding of social phenomena. Good quality data includes qualitative insights, subjective perspectives, and contextual understanding.
Axiology: Values play a significant role in research, as researchers acknowledge their own biases and the influence of values on knowledge production.
Typical Methods: Qualitative research methods, interviews, participant observation, content analysis.
Part III: Research Designs

A. Qualitative research:
i. To study community traditional child birth practices causing infant mortality.

Sampling design: Purposive sampling. Select participants who have experienced or are knowledgeable about traditional child birth practices and infant mortality. Purposefully choose individuals who can provide